My+Enlightenment+Thinker

** (Answer these using bullet points or brief notes and be prepared to use them in your discussion) ** He was the first man to observe the moon through a telescope He discovered the craters of the moon He discovered the phases of Venus and Jupiter, none of which were predicted by the Aristotelian model Taught Copernicanism (with heliocentrism) as a fact and was cautioned by the Church not to do so. Published the “Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems – Ptolemaic and Copernican” (which was very pro-Copernican) which passed ecclesiastical censors. Most of the population agreed with the Church’s opinion, or at least submitted to it, in that the universe was Geocentric. However, Galileo was a Heliocentrist and Copernicanist, which was considered a serious crime during that period. He believed in scientific reasoning and said that the authority of one thousand was not worth the humble reasoning of a single individual. Also, he was actually strongly religious, and considered one of the purposes in his life to unite science and Scripture, however, he also said that research should be approached without reading Scripture beforehand. In doing so, you might refer to their thoughts using the following categories (Don’t do them all at once; take turns offering ideas in each category): 1.  Human Nature does not change on a time scale of a few hundred of years. 2.  Cannot understand why people have such an urge to detract or depreciate what he has created almost purely for the sake of disagreeing. – Why do people steal? 3.  Nature has a mathematical structure; its characteristics are triangles, rectangles, circles, spheres, cones, pyramids, and other mathematical figures. (Mathematics represents the rational element of nature, and when the full content of mathematics is finally discovered, then nature is apprehended.) 1.  Tried to present his view of a material world existing independently of human consciousness which can be understood through theories 2.  Calls the knowledge of his predecessors to his defense e.g. Thomas Aquinas (foremost classical proponent of natural theology) 3.  Separation of ethics from knowledge (of nature, history, etc), of the separation of science from the legitimate domain of the Church 4.  Claimed the right of the people to investigate profane matters, questions which were capable of falsification in experience or reason 5.  Contribution to Epistemology: called attention to Aristotle’s erroneous assertion that objects fall at accelerations proportional to their heights (proved it wrong). Epistemological implication of this is that deference to authority is not a valid proof of assertions, arguments, hypotheses, or beliefs. 6.  To arrive at the knowledge of such mathematical laws that define nature, we must make use of sense and reason by passing through three stages: (The Galilean Method) 1.  The observation of the fats which fall within our experience 2.  The elaboration of a mathematical hypothesis as a presumed explanation of the phenomena under observation 3.  Verification of the hypothesis through new facts of experience. If the verification of experience agrees, the hypothesis becomes law. 1.  Was against the traditional geocentric cosmology 2.  Fundamentally spatial and geometric: the Earth’s axis retains its orientation in space as the Earth circles the Sun, and bodies not under a force retain their velocity (although this inertia is ultimately circular) 3.  Tried to unite Science and Scripture 1.  Was eventually put under house arrest for his views on Heliocentrism which were opposing the views of the Church 1.  Many of his ideas back then were rejected by people of the Church and those who believed in the Church’s power. He was considered a lunatic and a dangerous person who denied the Scriptures of the Bible. 2.  Now, his astronomical discoveries and investigation into the Copernican theory have led to a lasting legacy which includes the categorization of the four large moons of Jupiter (Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto) as the Galilean moons 3.  “Galilean method” contributed greatly to the way that people conduct research 4.  Galileo spacecraft, the first spacecraft to enter orbit around Jupiter Galileo Galilei supported Copernicanism and Heliocentrism, in opposition to the Church, which taught Geocentrism. It was considered a dangerous crime in a time when the views of the church were the law. Because he was in an era where the church held ultimate power, Galileo would always have to be very careful... he was really writing about his discoveries with his life on the line. Would any one of these thinkers be considered the most significant? Why? I think that Galileo would support the ongoing scientific revolution because not only is a lot of the research that goes on based on solid facts and reasoning, there are also a lot of religious people involved in the sciences.
 * Revolutionary Thinkers – A Discussion in Character **
 * Who was your character and what were they known for? **
 * Clearly explain several ways in which your character "saw" things differently than other characters. **
 * ** Ontology / concepts of human nature – **
 * ** Epistemology / concepts of knowing including how and why we know and what is truth. Views of how reality is to be explained and what methods are best suited to these observations. **
 * ** Cosmology / theory or model of how the above concepts explain our reality in time and space **
 * ** Social organization **
 * ** Political order and organization (include issues of legitimate leadership, justice, and rights) **
 * ** Other information that aided or broadened our understanding of the importance of these ideas today. **
 * What was the impact of these ideas then and how have they influenced the way we see things now? **
 * How were their ideas different from established ideas of the day? **
 * How or why did time and place bias your character’s ideas or another’s responses to their ideas? **
 * What present day revolutions in thinking (social, political or scientific) are taking place? Would your thinker support these ideas? **

 ·   Born in Pisa  ·  the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist and music theorist,  ·  At the age of 8, his family moved to Florence  ·  Attended Camaldolese Monastery at Vallombrosa, 21 mi (34 km) southeast of Florence.  ·  Seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, he enrolled for a medical degree at the University of Pisa  ·  He did not complete this degree, but instead studied mathematics.  ·  1589, was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa.  ·  1592, moved to the University of Padua, teaching geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610.  ·  His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which in pre-modern disciplinary practice was seen as correlated to the studies of mathematics and astronomy.  ·  Although a devout Roman Catholic, Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia in 1600 and Livia in 1601, and one son, Vincenzio, in 1606.  ·  Because of their illegitimate birth, their father considered the girls unmarriageable  ·  Both girls were sent to the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives.  ·  Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She is buried with Galileo at the Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze.  ·  Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life.  ·  In 1610 published an account of his telescopic observations of the moons of Jupiter, arguing in favor of the sun-centered, Copernican theory of the universe against the dominant earth-centered Ptolemaic and Aristotelian theories. <span style="FONT-SIZE: 11pt; FONT-FAMILY: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN"> ·  The next year Galileo visited Rome in order to demonstrate his telescope to the influential philosophers and mathematicians of the Jesuit Collegio Romano, and to let them see with their own eyes the reality of the four moons of Jupiter. <span style="FONT-SIZE: 11pt; FONT-FAMILY: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN"> ·  In 1612, opposition arose to the Sun-centered theory of the universe which Galileo supported. <span style="FONT-SIZE: 11pt; FONT-FAMILY: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN"> ·  In 1614, from the pulpit of Santa Maria Novella, Father Tommaso Caccini (1574–1648) denounced Galileo's opinions on the motion of the Earth, judging them dangerous and close to heresy. <span style="FONT-SIZE: 11pt; FONT-FAMILY: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN"> ·  Galileo went to Rome to defend himself against these accusations, but, in 1616, Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino personally handed Galileo an admonition enjoining him neither to advocate nor teach Copernican astronomy. <span style="FONT-SIZE: 11pt; FONT-FAMILY: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN"> ·  During 1621 and 1622 Galileo wrote his first book, //The Assayer// (//Il Saggiatore//), which was approved and published in 1623. In 1630, he returned to Rome to apply for a license to print the //Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems//, published in Florence in 1632. In October of that year, however, he was ordered to appear before the Holy Office in Rome. <span style="FONT-SIZE: 11pt; FONT-FAMILY: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN"> ·  Following a papal trial in which he was found vehemently suspect of heresy, Galileo was placed under house arrest and his movements restricted by the Pope. <span style="FONT-SIZE: 11pt; FONT-FAMILY: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN"> ·  From 1634 onward he stayed at his country house at Arcetri, outside of Florence. <span style="FONT-SIZE: 11pt; FONT-FAMILY: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN"> ·  He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice <span style="FONT-SIZE: 11pt; FONT-FAMILY: Symbol; mso-fareast-font-family: Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family: Symbol; mso-ansi-language: EN"> ·      He continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died. Question sheet: Political philosophy and the Evolution of Government... (Typed up from prompt-notes)

1) Discuss the origin of Renaissance ideas... The changes of the Renaissance were not uniform changes... there was a great Educational reform Some people question the usefulness of this period... Nostalgia for the classical age?

2) Do you think that people are equal?... People are not equal... status comes from what you accomplish in your work and your power Humans are untrustworthy because it is in their nature to want to destroy, steal and lie

3) What is the role and purpose of government?... The government should uphold freedoms and provide freedom of speech It should protect people from copyright infringement and unreasonable prosecution The Church should not be in a position of absolute power because it restricts the rights of the individuals to publish their findings

4) Should society change slowly or are radical upheavals of some sort necessary at times?... Radical changes are needed from time to time to promote change and improvement Only suddent change can turn around the way people think about things in their era Steady progress takes too long, people may even go backwards

5) What is the Social Contract and how is it created?... State authority must be derived from consent of the governed.... this would be ideal However, society is not usually organized this way

6) Some of the enlightened philosophers did not believe democracies were the best form of government... People need a legitimate ruler who makes the laws and keeps them -- a certain degree of democracy is needed, however, a complete democracy would result in mixed opinions and making decisions would take too long

** Post Discussion Thoughts on Revolutionary Thinkers ** Some dominant/repeated themes that arose in the discussions were: The equality/rights of man Impact on modern society that the ideas of our thinkers had Government reaction Reactions of the people during that time Controversy of our ideas/achievements
 * What were dominant or repeated themes that arose in the discussions **

Revolutionary change… A drastic change in ways of thinking Presenting a new view to an old matter (Galileo Galilei, Heliocentrism vs. Geocentrism) Discovering completely new ideas (Benjamin Franklin, electricity) A complete turnaround of governmental structure ( I think my strength was that my research was done reasonably well so I could reply to most of the questions asked.  I think that my weakness was that, in the end, I still can’t feel comfortable making a presentation in a subject I’m not really in love with – so obviously I lacked eloquence with words and didn’t say the things I wanted to say half as well as I could have, leading to muddling the point of my statements or repeating statements over and over.  I think my greatest weakness was in that I never really knew what questions to ask, so most of the time I was merely parroting the questions that other people asked me back to them.  I wish I could have talked about my discoveries more, such as how exactly Galileo proved Heliocentrism through the phases of Venus and the Galilean moons, the laws of the pendulum, and the velocity of gravity through his experiments. I also wish we could have talked about Ontology and Epistemology more because I had a lot of things written down in those fields.
 * How would you define revolutionary change given what different thinkers in history had to offer? Provide specific examples other than your own thinker. **
 * How well do you think you presented your ideas? List your strengths and weaknesses **
 * Are there things you wish you could have added to your discussion? List things you wanted to add or elaborate on in the discussion. **


 * 1) ** John Locke: ** He was one of the first Enlightenment thinkers, and all later thinkers had their ideas about social contracts and democracy influenced by him. His ideas had great influences on Epistemology and political philosophy as well.
 * 2) ** Galileo Galilei ** : He was a mathematician, astronomer, and physicist who spoke out endlessly against the Church and Geocentrism. He discovered the laws of the movements of the pendulum and that things of different weight still fall at the same speed towards the ground. The significance of his speaking out against the church was that later generations of revolutionary thinkers were able to speak out more against the government/general opinion of the public instead of hiding their ideas.
 * 3) ** Montesquieu: ** He was a French social commentator and political thinker who is famous for his idea of the separation of powers. This theory is taken for granted in modern discussions of government and it is implemented in many organizations all over the world. It helps democracy by preventing only one person or group from having all of the power.
 * 4) ** Francis Bacon: ** Francis Bacon proposed a method of developing philosophy – inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning was to become the base upon which scientific theories were to be built. All later scientists based their theories on his idea.
 * 5) ** Isaac Newton: ** He was a physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, alchemist, and theologian, and widely considered to be one of the most influential men in human history. His discoveries in the fields of mathematics and physics (such as gravity, the three laws of motion) are an enormous part of modern science. He also finally disproved Geocentrism by showing the consistency between his gravitational theories and Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
 * 6) ** Benjamin Franklin: ** He was one of the founding fathers of the United States of America and made many significant discoveries on electricity. Without these discoveries, many later scientific advances would have been impossible.
 * 7) ** Charles Darwin ** : He was an English naturalist who demonstrated that all living species have evolved over time from a common ancestor through the process he called “natural selection”. His ideas on evolution have formed the foundation for modern evolutionary theory and biology.
 * 8) ** Adam Smith: ** He is called the Father of modern economics. His magnum opus was “The Wealth of Nations” and is the first modern work of economics. Anyone who studies economics would study Smith’s works.
 * 9) ** Thomas Hobbes: ** His work, the **Leviathan** established the foundation for most of Western political philosophy from the perspective of the social contract theory. His ideas are still extremely widespread and important in Western society.
 * 10) ** Jean Jacques Rousseau: ** His political philosophy heavily influenced the French Revolution and the development and the development of liberal, conservative, and socialist theory. However, as his ideas don’t have a huge impact on modern society, he is not one of the most important Enlightenment Thinkers.
 * 11) ** Johannes Kepler: ** He was a German astronomer who was a key figure in the Scientific revolution. His laws of planetary motion provided one of the foundations for Isaac Newton’s theory of universal gravitation.
 * 12) ** Thomas Paine: ** His principal contribution was the widely read pamphlet **Common Sense (1776),** advocating colonial America’s independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain. He also greatly influenced the French Revolution and wrote the **Rights of Man (1791),** a guide to Enlightenment ideas.
 * 13) ** Mary Wollstonecraft: ** She is best knows for **A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792).** She argued in this book that women are not naturally inferior to men, and only appear to be so because of a lack of education. She suggested that both men and women should be treated as equals and imagined a social order founded on reason. She was an important supporter of women’s rights and made contributions to make society equal today.
 * 14) ** Anna Bijns: ** Around the 14th to 16th century, woman’s social status became very low and they were not allowed to choose their marriage partners, subsequently making her her husband’s subordinate. Anna Bijns was one of the few who never got married, and tried to spread the message not to marry to other women. Her work undoubtedly gave impetus to the resurrection of women’s rights and freedom, and helped women in gaining equal status with men.
 * 15) ** Voltaire: ** He was a French Enlightenment writer known for his defense of civil liberties, freedom of religion and free trade. Despite strict censorship laws, he was an outspoken and vigorous supporter of social reform. His works and ideas influenced important thinkers of both the American and French Revolution.
 * 16) ** Cesare, Marquis of Beccaria-Bonesana ****<span style="FONT-WEIGHT: normal; FONT-SIZE: 10pt; FONT-FAMILY: Arial; mso-fareast-font-family: Batang; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold">: ** He was best known for his treatise **On Crimes and Punishments (1764)**, which condemned torture and the death penalty, and was a founding work in the field of penology.
 * 17) ** Maria Sibylla Merian: ** She was one of the earlier woman naturalists. She was also a scientific illustrator who studied plants and insects, making detailed paintings based on her observations. Her documentations of the metamorphosis of the butterfly made her a significant (although not well known) contributor to entomology
 * 18) ** G.F. Handel: ** He was a German born Baroque composer who was famous for his operas. He was strongly influenced by the techniques of the great composers of the Italian Baroque and the English composer Henry Purcell. His music later influenced many composer who came after him, such as Haydn, Mozart, and Beethoven.
 * 19) ** Joseph Haydn: ** Haydn was one of the most prominent composers of the classical period, and was called my some the “Father of the Symphony” and the “Father of the String Quartet”.
 * 20) ** W.A. Mozart: ** He is among one of the most enduringly popular of classical composers.
 * 21) ** Ludwig von Beethoven: ** Beethoven was a German composer and pianist who was a crucial figure in the transitional period between the Classical and Romantic eras in Western classical music. Even now, he remains one of the most respected and influential composer of all time.
 * 22) ** Lady Mary Wortley Montagu: ** She is today chiefly remembered for her letters, which have been described as “the very first example of a secular work by a woman about the Muslim Orient”.